piatok 9. októbra 2026

Art of War: Strategic Survival — Leaving the Crisis Zone Before the Tipping Point

Human survival must be seen from a broader perspective than the one offered by publications about the SEALs, the SAS or the Spetsnaz. Real survival is far more complex than merely procuring food and building a fire somewhere in a deserted place. Human survival must be understood as comprehensive survival within human civil society during a period of crisis.

It is unlikely that you will end up in a deserted, inaccessible place where you will hunt game, filter water and light a fire by rubbing sticks together. This kind of wilderness survival is the basic type of survival, one that can be trained by people who work in conditions where they may find themselves in a situation requiring such knowledge. So what does real survival in human society mean?

Survival in human society is the material, mental and spiritual readiness to leave a crisis area at the right moment with minimal material provision, and then to settle in a new, safer homeland, whether temporary or permanent.

If for some reason you have decided not to fight for survival where you stand, but to save your loved ones first, then only by leaving the crisis area in time will you be able to secure a future for yourself and those close to you.


The Basic Questions of Survival

  1. What is a crisis situation, and what is a crisis area?
  2. When does the moment come to leave the crisis area?
  3. Where should I go with my loved ones — that is, the choice of a destination area?
  4. How do I reach the destination area most effectively?
  5. What material provision do I need for the journey?
  6. How do I protect myself and my loved ones?
Survival in the wild concerns only a small part of a person's real, comprehensive survival in this world. For the purposes of strategic survival, what matters most is your intelligence, your presence of mind and your psychological resilience.

Why? Simply because questions one to five depend on your knowledge, your assessment of the situation and your mental balance, and only the last question requires more developed material skills and a somewhat better-trained body. Even that last point will be pure horror for less intelligent individuals, because by acting unwisely they may endanger themselves and their loved ones before they ever reach the destination area. You must always be aware that when you intervene, you set off many reactions that may slip out of your control, and for that kind of presence of mind you need certain innate and learned abilities. This holds many times over for the use of violence.

Everything, however, has its cause and its consequence, and it may happen that, although you are prepared to the utmost, you fail, and neither your physical body nor the bodies of your loved ones survive. To be at peace with this is the most important thing in survival. Without accepting the final death of the physical body as part of human existence you cannot survive, because the fear of death and dying is the greatest fear a human being faces. It is important to build behind your actions a philosophical concept that will help you survive — and not, on the contrary, one that will make you indifferent to the future.


[1] Crisis and the Crisis Situation

A crisis in human life is a moment of distinct imbalance that forces us to make radical changes and so bring life back into a temporary balance. In the social sense, it is a critical disruption of the balance of the current political and economic order, which may result in civil unrest or even war.

A crisis situation in human life is a situation marked by crisis — that is, by imbalance, a state of hardship, shortage or decline. From the standpoint of the security and protection of our state, the crisis situation is governed by Constitutional Act No. 227/2002 Coll. on the Security of the State in Time of War, State of War, State of Emergency and State of Crisis [Slovak Republic]. It is a period during which the security of the state is directly threatened or disrupted, and the constitutional authorities may, in order to deal with it, declare war or proclaim a state of war, a state of emergency or a state of crisis.

It is important to understand these terms in depth, because understanding them will help us with the analysis in the second point of our discussion.


[2] The Critical Tipping Point of a Crisis

The critical tipping point is the moment of crisis, of imbalance, from which a return to the initial state is no longer possible, and further events take a course beyond our control.

It follows from the definitions in points one and two that your decision to leave the crisis area must come before this critical tipping point arrives. If the government declares war, if a state of war is proclaimed, if martial law is declared, or if uncontrolled violence takes hold of the city streets, you have missed the tipping point. If border protection is stepped up, or the borders are closed entirely, or the call-up of reserves begins — and likewise if commercial transport options are cancelled — you will find it very hard to manage leaving the country with your loved ones.

Recognising the moment when the die is already cast is therefore very important, and it demands sound analytical reasoning and skill in following the socio-political and socio-economic situation. A simple example from life will make it easy to understand when the die is cast and when you still have time to turn the situation around. If your fist is flying toward another person's nose, then even if you miss, the die is cast — ALEA IACTA EST. As long as you have not yet struck, you have a choice, and can handle the critical situation differently.


[3] The Destination Area of Migration

The choice of a safe country for the rest of your life is influenced by many factors, but the most important are those that delimit the various levels of the crisis area. A crisis area has its hypocentre, its epicentre and its radiation zone, much as in the explosion of an atomic bomb or in an earthquake.

  • The hypocentre is the source of the crisis, something rather hidden beneath the surface and not visible at first glance. It is the ideological centre of the crisis. 
  • The epicentre is already a concrete area, city or country from which the crisis or conflict spreads into the surrounding world. There may be several epicentres. 
  • The radiation zone is an area where the crisis is felt, but its impact on life is not critical — though there remains a possibility that the conflict will spread into this area too.

Everything outside this complex area is a temporarily safe area.

Which country you set out for depends on your knowledge of the geopolitical situation. The great powers have their strategic plans, and these contain certain points of interest. They are mostly areas with great mineral wealth, fertile land and water, or they are so-called transit territories, or bases for defence and attack. You should avoid these countries in the event of global conflicts. In the event of local conflicts, you must choose a country that has a sufficiently strong army and is sufficiently far from the epicentres of the conflict. Should you feel the need to take part in the fighting for your original homeland, your family is outside the danger zones, and you can go back and fight.


[4] Transport

Let us assume you have judged the situation well and are leaving the country in time. You have chosen a country that, in your view, will not take part in the conflict directly and is sufficiently distant from all the epicentres. Next comes choosing the most effective means of transport. Simple at first glance; at second glance, not quite.

The greatest freedom of movement will be given to you by a private means of transport that you can operate. Here a principle applies that is more important than ownership itself: what decides is your ability to operate the vehicle and to have access to it at the right moment — not ownership on paper. Access to an aircraft is worthless if you cannot take off and land safely.

That is why the strategic solution to transport is made in advance, in time of peace, and rests on three pillars:

  1. Redundancy. Never one vehicle and one route — a car in working order, a full tank as the standard and not the exception, a second route away from the main roads, and a walking variant for the last kilometres thought through in advance.
  2. Contacts. Cultivate relationships that will let you obtain a vehicle legally and quickly when you need it — an arrangement with an acquaintance, a shared vehicle, access to a means of transport you know how to operate. A network of trust is worth more than property that can be confiscated or that gets stranded.
  3. Documents and legitimacy. In a crisis, the person who gets across the border is the one whose papers are in order and who gives the security forces no reason to deal with him. Every reason to detain you is lost time — time you do not have at the tipping point.
An important note on legality. Necessity is not a licence — it is a defence that applies only when no milder option existed and you did not bring the threatened harm upon yourself. Building a survival plan on taking other people's property is a strategic mistake, not a solution. Theft turns you into hunted game — precisely the state that the whole of strategic survival seeks to avoid. Whoever plans in time will never get into that position.

If you have not managed to secure a private means of transport, all that remains to you is public transport — trains, buses and air travel. If you have judged the moment well, these services may still be usable. If you are late, flights are probably cancelled, and bus and train connections run only sporadically, because the roads and railways are beginning to be used for moving troops and equipment. Reckon also with modern reality — GPS jamming, road closures and checkpoints on the main exit routes, and fuel restrictions — so carry paper maps as well as offline navigation, keep fuel as a permanent reserve, and plan your route away from the corridors the army will take over first.

Short distances can also be covered on foot. If you go on foot, you should plan your journey so that your whole group can manage the terrain, and so that throughout the march everyone has enough water, food, rest and protection.


[5] Materiel and Technical Provision [MTP]

Every member of your "evacuation team" should be able to carry his own materiel and a food supply for at least 72 hours [3 days]. The weight must be reduced for children, the elderly, the sick and the wounded. A very important part of your materiel, however, is not only the things you will use to start a fire, or medicines and food, but also financial resources — in cash and in virtual form.

In cash you should have at least six (6) of your current monthly salaries. The rest of your finances you should hold in gold [Aurum] and silver [Argentum]. As for silver, there is one more use that matters for your materiel. Silver is highly antibacterial and antiseptic, so it is a good idea to have cutlery and a water cup (or a whole bottle) made of silver, or at least silver-plated. If you cannot afford silver, use stainless steel. Under no circumstances use aluminium [Aluminium]!

If you also rely on virtual money, it is important to keep your money in several foreign accounts, and not only in the country where you live. If no fatal social crisis occurs in your lifetime — God grant it — properly invested resources will surely grow in value. If you do not use them, they will remain to your descendants or other relatives.

WARNING! In the event of total crisis = apocalypse = financial resources are unusable. In a state of chaos and shortage of everything, barter is what works above all. Financial resources become usable again when civil society begins to reconstruct itself. Gold, silver and jewellery are worthless in a post-apocalyptic world. What has high value at such a time is above all water, food, medicine, hygiene supplies, clothing, and weapons with ammunition.

A separate chapter of your materiel is weapons and ammunition. A simple rule applies here: if you are migrating in peacetime, rely on edged weapons, which are easy to conceal and need no ammunition; if you are moving through a country where unrest is occurring, firearms are appropriate. Every member of your "evacuation group" should have a weapon and should be able to use it and look after it.

For the choice of weapon a simple and timeless rule applies: Carry a weapon and ammunition that are widely available in your area. Do not use weapons that need special ammunition or special resources to function, because you will either not get them, or they will cost you too many resources. This rule does not change — what changes is the answer to the question of what is widely available, and that answer must therefore be read on two levels:

1. Military "resupply" logic — what standard army and security units use. This answer changes over time according to procurement decisions. For Slovakia, for decades, it was rifles in calibre 7.62×39 mm (the vz. 58 assault rifle). Today the Armed Forces of the Slovak Republic are moving to the NATO standard 5.56×45 mm (M4A1, Grand Power M4M, CZ BREN 2), which is also the most available round across the allied armies. So if you are counting on resupply from military sources, your reference today is 5.56×45, not 7.62×39.

2. Regional civilian availability — what actually circulates. Here 7.62×39 mm remains dominant: decades of the vz. 58, the ubiquity of the AK platform throughout Central and Eastern Europe, enormous surpluses and a low price. For the pistol, the answer is clearly 9×19 mm Parabellum — the most widespread pistol round in our country, in the army, the police and on the civilian market.

In practice: for a peacetime move, 9×19 (pistol) and 7.62×39 (long gun) will give you the cheapest and most available ammunition in the region; if you are preparing for a scenario dependent on alliance logistics, add 5.56×45 NATO. If you are taking only a hunting weapon with you, long guns in .22 Long Rifle are ideal [e.g. the Ruger 10/22 Takedown]. .22 LR ammunition is quiet, light, and above all commonly available and cheap almost all over the world.

To the four classic categories of materiel there now inseparably belongs a fifth — information and digital provision. In a modern crisis you are being watched, your money can be frozen with a single order, and your mobile phone broadcasts your location. Therefore: keep your documents both in physical form and as an encrypted digital copy in two places; spread your money across several jurisdictions, with part of it in self-custodied cryptocurrency (you either remember the seed phrase or keep it split across several places); download offline maps and navigation in advance; ensure energy independence (a power bank, a small solar panel, a spare phone and SIM); and practise conscious management of your digital footprint — the mobile phone is a tracking device, social networks are intelligence for anyone, and you must also reckon with passive surveillance (number-plate-reading cameras, drones over moving groups).

Your materiel thus consists of the things you carry with you, and these can be divided into the following main categories:

  1. Clothing, water, food, and the tools for preparing and consuming it.
    [If you have nothing to eat, you will have no strength; you will waste away, fall ill and die.]
  2. Medicines, sterile material for treating wounds, and hygiene supplies.
    [After food, cleanliness and hygiene are the most important thing on journeys through hostile surroundings.]
  3. Weapons, ammunition, and the equipment to carry them.
    [Without weapons you will not be able to defend yourself: resisting one or two people is possible without an effective weapon, but resisting a starving mob or an armed group is impossible.]
  4. Financial provision, in cash and non-cash form.
    [If you have nothing to buy materiel with, you will have to steal — and that will make you hunted game.]
  5. Information and digital provision: documents, communications, and management of your digital footprint.
    [Without documents you are nobody at the border; with a dead or unmanaged device you are blind, mute and trackable.]

You should have all your materiel prepared as a "Bug-Out Bag", alias BOB — that is, in one place, so that within a few minutes you can throw it on and leave your home.

[6] Combat Skills

You can see for yourself how much knowledge and how many skills you should master in order to handle the first five points of strategic survival. The sixth point is more practical, and "less" demanding in strategy than the previous ones. We may also call it tactical survival, which is where practical martial art and skills belong — that is, how, when and where to use violence, and where not to. To study this point you can use the manuals mentioned at the start of this article, but it is better to find someone who acquired his skills through personal experience. Avoid people whose skills have never been tested under crisis conditions — you can play at survival more cheaply!

Finally, one small thing that you may already have realised yourself while reading this article; but if not, let me remind you.

The worst thing you can do if armed conflict breaks out in your country is to stay at home with your family [especially in a city] and try to protect your property and family on the spot, and alone. If you stay at home, you will be called up into the army, and your family will be left unprotected. 

If you have a family, it is your duty to protect it first — and then you can throw yourself into the war on whichever side your convictions lead you.

Note for readers outside Slovakia: This article was written for Slovak readers and cites the legislation and conditions of the Slovak Republic (in particular Constitutional Act No. 227/2002 Coll., and the calibres and armament of the Slovak Armed Forces). Laws on states of emergency, mobilisation, border crossing, and the possession, carrying and transport of weapons and ammunition differ from country to country. Before acting on anything in this article, check the legislation of the state in which you live and of every state you intend to travel through.

Art of War: An Introduction to Archery — Lessons from the Arab and Persian Masters

One day Nūshīrvān asked Bābak Ārez: Which men-at-arms are the most renowned? He answered: The masters of the bow and arrow. Nūshīrvān was surprised and wanted him to explain more fully, so he asked: What should such men be like? 

He answered: Their whole bodies should be made of heart [courage], and their hearts should be made of weapons [strength], and all their weapons should be the bow, and all their bows should be arrows, and all their arrows should be the hearts of their enemies. 

Nūshīrvān asked further: How is one to understand this? And again he answered: When they keep their hearts and weapons mighty, the string smooth and strong like the bow, and keep the arrow straight and true to the line, then the string will find its place in the heart of the enemy.

The Persians define the ideal adept — the student of archery — as follows:

"In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate
Bismi llāhi r-raḥmāni r-raḥīm
بِسْمِ اللهِ الرَّحْمٰنِ الرَّحِيْمِ 
the recognised books on archery describe those who wish to learn this science as follows:

01) he should be pure of heart,
02) he should be grateful to his teacher,
03) he should not be greedy, and should lead a clean life,
04) he should keep his word and do good deeds,
05) he should be cheerful and generous,
06) he should be able to endure hardship and live by the principles of javānmardī [chivalry],
07) he should be open-chested and broad-shouldered,
08) he should not be an oppressor, nor insult people,
09) he should not be lazy, and should be a good servant,
10) he should have long arms, and should be modest.

The teaching of this art is not recommended to the ungrateful, the miserly, the knavish, the disagreeable, or the wicked."

If you think the ten points above describe you, let me add a piece of advice: Don't reinvent what has already been invented! By all means refine the art of your forefathers — but realise that the people who used the bow and arrow five hundred or more years ago, in daily life and in war, surely knew what they were talking about; and if you wish to improve on their art, it is wise first to master what they knew.


"If glory is to strike the foe, 
then best to use the swiftest throw
and loose the arrow from the bow."

Strength,
speed,
accuracy
and care for one's own protection.

These are the four basic pillars of archery — and not of archery alone. Without mastering them, an archer will perish in battle. Why?

If the arrows loosed are not penetrating and full of strength, the opponent will easily turn them aside with his shield. If the archer lacks speed and is slow in shooting, his opponent will close on him quickly and destroy him before he can do anything. If the archer lacks accuracy, the opponent will hold him in contempt and overcome him easily. If he cannot defend himself well, the opponent will bring him down without trouble.

These four points are as indispensable to archers as the archer, the bow, the string and the arrow are to shooting itself.

The Technical Principles of Archery

1.0 the grip
2.0 setting the nock on the string — "nocking"
3.0 the hold (the locking of the drawing hand)
4.0 the draw
5.0 aiming
6.0 the release

All six of these principles are important parts of the shot, and by perfect mastery of them all the archer acquires the four main pillars of archery. The ordering of the principles above is my own selection, for my own needs. As a matter of interest, here is how the principles were ordered by various historical medieval Arab and Persian schools.

Abū Hāshim al-Māwardī said that there are four principles of shooting:

(1.0) the grip
(3.0) the hold
(5.0) aiming
(6.0) the release


Ṭāhir al-Balkhī maintains five principles of shooting:

(1.0) the grip
(2.0) nocking
(3.0) the hold
(5.0) aiming
(6.0) the release


Isḥāq al-Raqqī said there are ten:

(0.1) stringing the bow
(0.2) standing sideways to the target, so that it is in line with the left eye
(1.0) the grip
(2.0) nocking
(3.0) the hold
(4.1) drawing to the mouth
(4.2) stopping the arrowhead between the two joints of the left thumb
(5.0) aiming
(6.0) the release
(6.1) opening the hand


Abū Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan al-Harawī maintains seven principles of shooting:

(0.1) stringing the bow
(1.0) the grip
(2.0) nocking
(3.0) the hold
(4.0) the draw
(5.0) aiming
(6.0) the release


Some teachers claim the principles are four, and these:

(1.0) the grip
(4.3) drawing with the fingers forming the number 63 [the thumb lock, expressed in the Arabic system of finger-reckoning]
(5.0) aiming
(6.0) the release

The technical principles, however, are not all that makes up the art of archery. There are other important branches of knowledge in this art, closely tied to the principles. According to the Arabic manuscripts there are nine of these associated branches:

on the even and smooth draw
on the capabilities of the bow
on the capabilities of the string
on the capabilities of the nock
on the capabilities of the arrow
on the construction of the bow
on the ability to shoot in full armour
on accurate shooting
on inflicting damage


The Persians add the following as important:

on adequate equipment
on the proper clothing of the archer
on arrowheads
on weather and atmospheric conditions
on suitable positions
on the knowledge of distances


The technical principles are those without which shooting is impossible, while the associated branches are of great use to the archer who wishes to penetrate deep into the secret of shooting. Besides all the principles and branches, the archer needs two further important qualities. They are prudence and patience!

Beginning the Training

Before you begin to practise archery, it is important to choose the right bow. The main thing in choosing a bow is your strength in relation to the bow, and the kind of archery you want to practise.

Choosing a Bow by Its Strength

An archer can determine the strength of his bow in various ways. One of them is to take the bow, string it, grip it with the left hand, take the string with the index, middle and ring fingers of the right hand, and very slowly draw the bow to the left elbow. At this point he should let go of the string with the ring finger and continue drawing until the full draw of his arrow.
If the archer can make such a draw without shaking, without trembling and without strain, the bow is below his maximum limit and is suitable for aiming and shooting. If, on the other hand, the bow begins to shake and tremble when the ring finger lets go, and the archer cannot draw it to the full length of the arrow, then the bow exceeds his abilities.

Another way of determining a bow's strength is to take the bow, string it, nock a suitable arrow, set the arrowhead on the ground, spread the legs apart and draw the full length of the arrow in this position. If the archer succeeds in this draw, the bow is suitable for him to use. Otherwise it is too strong for him and unsuitable. After this double test the archer can go on to weigh the bow's strength precisely with weights, so as to establish exactly what his range of strength is for each type of bow.

Choosing a Bow by Its Purpose

The composite bow is an elaborate product of careful workmanship. Its construction resembles that of living beings. Just as the human body is created from four main components (bones, flesh, sinews and blood), so the bow is made of four main components. The wood in the bow is like the skeleton in a man, the horn like the flesh (the muscles), the sinew like the sinews, and the glue like the blood.
Just as a human being has a belly and a back, so does the bow; and just as a man can bend easily and without injury inward toward the belly, but may hurt himself if he bends outward toward the back, so it is with the bow. It may bend inward toward its belly, but bending it against its back may cause it to break.

Variations in the construction of the bow, in keeping with its different purposes, produce five kinds of bow:

the war bow
the training bow
the bow for target competition
the bow for flight (distance) competition
the bow for trick shooting


The war bow should be equal to the archer's strength, with short ends (siyah) and a straight grip. It should have more horn than wood, and more sinew than wood. It should not be very recurved, so that it can be strung quickly. It should have more horn than wood because the strength of the bow and its performance depend on the horn: the more there is, the stronger the bow — but the more prone it is to warping under the influence of the weather. The more wood and sinew it has, the straighter it stays, but its strength falls. One must find the golden mean in the use of horn.

The training bow should be a little stronger than the archer's abilities. With regular training it gradually becomes easier to handle. The archer should then add one and a half dirhams [a unit of weight] of sinew to increase the bow's strength. He should repeat this each time the bow becomes more flexible for him and loses strength, until the bow once again reaches the archer's capacity. The training bow should have broad limbs, a rounded grip and strong ends. Its sinew should exceed both the horn and the wood.

The bow for target competition should be of average size and construction, with less wood than horn and with the thickness of sinew in balance with the horn. In addition it should have a slender grip, and its limbs should be curved and of medium size. The ends should be of medium length and medium curvature. If it has these characteristics, this target bow will be without defects, and its usefulness and accuracy will be high.

The bow for flight (distance) competition should have a rounded grip and long ends, and should be curved both in the grip and in the ends. Its limbs should be smaller and rounded, the lower one less and the upper one more — or, according to other archers, exactly the reverse, the upper limb less curved than the lower. The longer and more dominant the ends and the grip, the faster and harder the arrow flies; for the slacker the bow, the weaker it is — but the less prone to occasional faults and shortcomings.

The bow for trick shooting should be like the one used by the Persians: with a square grip of medium size, short and thick ends of almost equal length, and limbs of equal length and width. In addition it should be very flexible; in strength it should not exceed half the archer's strength.

Once you have chosen your bow and made or acquired your arrows, you can begin training. To close this introduction to archery, let us also name the targets an archer strikes, according to a Persian manuscript:

tīr bar del zadan — to shoot an arrow into the heart
tīr bar gardan zadan — to shoot an arrow into the throat
tīr bar jegargāh zadan — to shoot an arrow into the liver
tīr bar sīne andākhtan — to shoot an arrow into the chest
tīr bar shekam zadan — to shoot an arrow into the belly
tīr bar shāne zadan — to strike the shoulder with an arrow
tīr bar chashm zadan — to shoot an arrow into the eye
tīr bar dahān zadan — to strike the enemy's open mouth with an arrow
tīr bar band-e dast zadan — to strike the wrist with an arrow ...

Literature used:
  • Dhanurveda Saṃhitā [Bhāratavarṣa] — undated
  • Nowruznāmeh [Persia] — 11th century CE
  • A Book on the Excellence of the Bow and Arrow [Morocco] — 15th century CE
  • Manuscript of Sharīf Muḥammad [Persia] — early 16th century CE
  • Jāmeʿ al-hedāyāt fī ʿelm al-romāyāt [Persia] — 1574 CE
  • Resāle-ye kamāndārī [Persia] — undated

On the sources: The medieval manuscripts listed above are accessible today chiefly through modern critical editions and translations. The Arabic tradition (the dialogue, the qualities of the student, the principles of the masters al-Māwardī, al-Balkhī, al-Raqqī and al-Harawī, the construction of the composite bow and the five types of bow) draws on the classic translation of a medieval Arabic manuscript: N. A. Faris & R. P. Elmer, Arab Archery (Princeton University Press, 1945). The Persian tradition and the terminology of target strikes follow the modern literature on Persian archery: M. M. Khorasani, Persian Archery and Swordsmanship (2013). Arabic and Persian names and terms follow the international (DIN 31635 / IJMES) convention.

streda 7. októbra 2026

History: Ninjutsu and Kuden — Why the Art Was Never Truly Secret

The term kuden is made up of two ideograms, ku 口 — mouth, and den 伝 — transmission. It is a far-reaching concept, closely bound up with the Japanese Way and with the arts, whether martial or otherwise. It is strongly present throughout shinobi no jutsu [ninjutsu], yet in discussion it is passed over and, for the most part, only half understood.

Many people hold the mistaken notion that the manuals of ninjutsu are written in a cipher, handed down orally so that the secrecy of their contents might be preserved. Sometimes the scrolls consist merely of lists of skills and tools, and this creates the illusion of some kind of code. But this interpretation is wrong, save for a few examples — such as information on the ingredients of certain explosives.

The meaning of the individual names may have been plain fact to anyone versed in the military terminology of the period in which a given scroll was composed. That we do not understand these names today does not mean they were equally obscure to the people concerned in the past. To attach the word kuden to certain skills makes the skills without it general knowledge — or at least intelligible to the people of a given school and age.

Most instructional manuals contain detailed information with a reference to further skills that are to be passed on orally. A ninja manual is almost always highly informative, but with a touch of hidden meaning, or a secret subtext. Everything considered too secret to be written down is likewise marked as kuden.

Ninjutsu itself was never secret!

To pay a local inhabitant for information was regarded as ninjutsu, just as was sending some man to observe the banners and identifying marks of an enemy army. Shinobi no jutsu is in essence a series of levels with loose boundaries between them. Some techniques were known to many students, others only to a chosen few. The closer you came to the head of a school's system, the closer you came to its deep secrets. Both the Shinobi Hiden and the Shōninki speak of sharing the deepest secrets with only one person — and by this is meant not merely a member of the family, but the one who shows the greatest aptitude for the work of the ninja.

"If you have children or grandchildren who are not good enough, or do not have the right mindset, then they should not receive the complete traditions of ninjutsu, and certain skills should be kept hidden from them. And to one chosen person alone should they be given in their fullness." Ninjutsu Ōgiden, 1586

Ninjutsu, however, was not always handed on to just one person. A whole generation of men from the province of Iga was hired to teach others the art of the ninja across most of the Japanese armies. About fifty ninja were hired in this way in each province, which gives hundreds, even thousands, of schools. How else could the demands and needs of an entire country have been met, if only one man of a single generation acquired the knowledge of ninjutsu?

In history we find no Japanese schools whose content was handed on in secrecy, or built solely on an oral tradition, with the exception of the Ōgiden manual mentioned above, where parts of the inner mechanisms are passed to only one person per generation. Only a small percentage of the teaching's content was kept secret in this way from its members. It must be understood, however, that certain parts of the teaching were meant to be understood only by the students of the school that had gathered those skills. In this sense, kuden may be divided into three kinds:
  • [1] Skills that are known to most of the people engaged in military operations, and to those who concern themselves with shinobi no jutsu or are themselves shinobi soldiers. These are skills such as reconnaissance, topography and the arts of measurement — in short, the elements used by an entire army.
  • [2] Skills whose effect is understood by everyone — explosives, say, or the techniques of night raids — but whose detailed particulars are not commonly known. The path to these skills, not their result, is the kuden, and it is known only to a select number of those engaged in this activity.
  • [3] Skills that are a deep secret and are passed only among a few, very few, members across a school. The people who are the target of their effect are ignorant of their application — such as eavesdropping on conversations from within an enemy fortification without the agent being detected, techniques of infiltration and the making of sleeper agents, or the mystical elements kept for the more advanced students.

Kuden appears throughout Japanese culture, and this is one of the reasons for the loss of some of the finer details of the art of the ninja. All the teaching lineages have died out, and we no longer possess a living oral tradition with a verifiable background.

For the reader from the Western world it is best to see kuden as the oral transmission of information from teacher to student, meant either to keep a secret or to indicate something too complex to be written down.

On the sources: The period manuals cited above (Shinobi Hiden / Ninpiden, Shōninki, Ninjutsu Ōgiden) are available today in the modern English translations of Antony Cummins and Yoshie Minami. Japanese terms and names are given in the standard (Hepburn) romanization.

History: Ninja or Shinobi? Correcting the Myth of Japan's Shadow Warriors

The reading of the characters 忍者 as shinobi rather than ninja is assured when these characters appear in certain grammatical positions. We cannot say today precisely how the medieval Japanese read these ideograms. There is, however, a strong argument for shinobi no mono, especially where phonetic markers are available to aid the reading. The term shinobi begins to appear in historical documents in the 14th century and undoubtedly predates the word ninja.

From the standpoint of modern reading in English, "ninja" has become the familiar, fluent form, while shinobi — though the more correct term — is less widely known and carries fewer popular connotations. For this reason I use both terms throughout this article, switching between them as convenient.

Equally debatable are the ideograms that may be read as ninjutsu or shinobi no jutsu, by which we mean the art and skills of the ninja. Both versions are correct, but the phonetic markers on period documents show shinobi no jutsu as the proper reading, given that we have no records of words read as ninjutsu.


Shinobi No Mono

Myths: Many enthusiasts of ninjutsu today hold that the term ninja denotes a social class, like the term samurai, and in doing so they ignore important historical facts. This mistaken interpretation also gave rise to the myth of an "eternal struggle" between samurai and ninja, in which the samurai stood for GOOD and LIGHT and the ninja for DARKNESS and EVIL. According to such people, ninja existed as a parallel "shadow" military class with its own distinct hierarchy and codes, differing from those of the samurai; the ninja supposedly performed tasks the samurai could not, because the code of Bushidō and other laws forbade them to him. Where and how this fabrication arose is hard to pin down, but a large share of this disinformation within the shinobi no jutsu community is carried on the backs of the very teachers and instructors the world over, Japan included. Through their superficiality and greed they created the 20th-century ninja who confuses generations of young people to this day.

Facts: Soldiers of the shinobi were recruited from various social strata of medieval Japan, but broadly we may say that most ninja came either from the ranks of the lower samurai class or from the foot soldiers known as ashigaru. We may also say that the term shinobi was the name of a profession and a set of skills — just as today a physician is a physician and a smith a smith — while the level of those skills is not defined by it in any way. It is today established that ninjutsu was mastered even by high-ranking samurai, such as Uesugi Kenshin, called the Dragon of Echigo, and likewise his enemy "twin," the Tiger of Kai, the great Takeda Shingen himself. All the battles of medieval Japan were decided by the use of ninjutsu to a far greater degree than is officially acknowledged today.

On the basis of analysis of historical documents, two main categories of ninja emerge, which unfortunately are not distinguished grammatically. The only way to identify which shinobi is meant is to grasp the context of each historical reference.
  • [1] A shinobi may be a man or a woman without any training, simply someone used for their innate abilities, however slight. For example, a person with a good memory may be used as a shinobi to record a mental image of a particular space, or a person with a good knowledge of a specific province (kyōdō) may be called upon to gather information of any kind in that land. This untrained individual is regarded as a ninja by the tacticians of medieval Japan, but is not what we would consider a ninja from our modern perspective.
  • [2] The archetypal figure of the shinobi no mono — a man trained in the skills set out below, to whatever degree, and employed as needed by a general or by the daimyō himself.
It is important to realize that, on the one hand, the term shinobi may denote a relatively incapable person sent on some mission at a lord's whim, while on the other, shinobi may designate a group of highly qualified individuals, specialists engaged in covert operations that made them today's legends.

Very often the word ninja also appears with two epithets, "ninja as assassin" and "ninja as spy," both of which deserve correction, as they do not match the whole truth. Ninja were indeed used as assassins, but the evidence for this activity is scant and represents a very small part of their sphere of operation.

The shinobi was first and foremost a skilled maker and user of explosives and poisons, an arsonist and a saboteur; he could also break into fortified seats to steal property or information. He gathered information by eavesdropping, but also by theft. Occasionally he eliminated the inhabitants of target seats. Under cover of darkness he served as a guide for assault units in "no man's land." These skills are known collectively as In-nin. He also played the role of messenger, using secret codes to convey messages by sound, by symbols and by written text.

The ninja was NOT trained as an assassin; his primary task was "information-gatherer," and if opportunity arose, or if the situation required it, he was used as an assassin. The evidence points rather to the destruction of entire families (clans) and their homes, not of individual human targets.

Ninja were recruited from every social stratum of the population, but mostly came from families of the lower samurai classes and served in the retinue of a clan leader. As part of samurai culture, shinobi soldiers were specialized as far-ranging scouts and secret agents who infiltrated enemy lines and carried out espionage and sabotage. In an army, one shinobi was reckoned for roughly every hundred men. Their physical, military and combat skills were no different from those of their fellow samurai.

Besides various bujutsu (martial styles), they also trained in different non-combat skills, so that on their missions they could appear in the roles of street vendors, merchants, actors, vagrants, hired swordsmen, and even priests and monks. These non-combat skills we call Yo-nin.

Spies have existed as long as wars have been waged, but the shinobi (also called in Japan Yato, Yushi, Kanja, Kagi, Kamari, Kyoudan, Onmitsu, Oniwaban, Suppa, Rappa, Fuma, Iga No Mono, Koka No Mono, Nokizarru, Monogiki, Mitsumono and others — depending on the period or province) operated on the Japanese and Far Eastern scene from roughly the end of the 14th century, when the Chinese Kan (Cho, Saisaku or Yutei) was "Japanized," until he gradually vanished in the turmoil of the Meiji reforms in the 19th century. He was replaced by a combination of modern spies and special army units, where the spy plays the role of informant and the special unit provides the striking force of attack. This division of the two main spheres of the ninja's work finally pushed these legendary men off the scene.

When the Tokugawa clan took control of Japan in 1603, the country entered a period of relative peace and totalitarian control. The shinobi no mono, as a decisive force on the battlefield, was no longer needed, and so their use shifted more into the sphere of espionage and counter-espionage.

The decline of their popularity hastened the activity of leading ninja in compiling records to preserve their teaching. In 1676 a shinobi named Fujibayashi Yasutake, who came from a samurai family, probably from Iga province, completed work on his masterpiece — a collection of information on shinobi no jutsu that he had gained through personal experience. This collection is today known as the Bansenshukai.

"In principle, the greatest and deepest secret in the shinobi traditions is contained in the chapter 'The Use of Spies' in The Art of War by the Chinese strategist Sun Tzu.
If you do not study this text thoroughly in every detail, and think that what is essential for the ninja are the various 'admirable' skills — such as crossing a water moat or a high wall — then you will be entirely off the mark and will, as the saying goes, put the cart before the horse." Fujibayashi Yasutake


GOKAN – THE FIVE SPIES
  • Inkō No Kan — Local spies — Their purpose is to gather information and achieve their aims by using the local dialect. This is the same as the Japanese skill called dakkō, which literally means "copying from the mouth" and is a method of espionage, deception, or information-gathering through a good knowledge of the local dialect.
  • Nairyō No Kan — Internal spies — Their aim is to lure a member of the enemy's retinue, or someone close to the enemy, and use him for one's own ends. A good internal spy will carry out his tasks thoroughly and precisely. But beware: the enemy may use this technique on you, winning over one of your men as his ally. Only rarely does one succeed in planting such a spy in the enemy's ranks; to do so means you must prepare them years in advance and with the utmost care, directing and controlling them before they are truly needed.
  • Hantoku No Kan — Converted spies — Here it is a matter of captured enemy spies and their use for our own ends. Through them you can obtain exceptionally excellent information. In Japan this is called kaerinin or sorinin. You can use enemy shinobi agents by feeding them false information, which allows you to manipulate your enemy's plans to your advantage. It is precisely these converted spies whom, according to Sun Tzu, you should reward most liberally.
  • Shichō No Kan — Doomed, or expendable, spies. They are those to whom we deliberately pass false information so that they carry it to the enemy. When the enemy uncovers the deception, these spies usually perish — sacrificed for the sake of the ruse.
  • Tensei No Kan — Surviving spies are those trained in sabotage and reconnaissance carried out by infiltrating enemy lines and positions. This is the archetypal shinobi no mono from our modern perspective.

What follows from this short treatise for today's ninjutsu enthusiasts?

  • [1] Ninjutsu is not a physical martial art — meaning a standalone fighting style — and it contains no instructions on how to fight man to man. It is rather a supplementary education of the samurai, encompassing specific tactical and strategic principles of obtaining and using information to defeat the enemy.
  • [2] The practical combat disciplines practised by the samurai, and thus by the ninja, were kenjutsu (swordsmanship), iaijutsu (the art of the quick draw), yarijutsu (the art of spear fighting), kyūjutsu (archery), yabusame (mounted archery), shurikenjutsu (the throwing of short straight blades), taihojutsu (arresting and binding), bajutsu (horsemanship) and many others.
  • [3] The shinobi soldiers formed no special social class of medieval Japan. A ninja could be anyone, at any social level.
  • [4] The designations jonin (upper ninja), chunin (middle ninja) and genin (lower ninja) likewise do not refer to social status, as is often wrongly interpreted, but to the range of knowledge, experience and skill.
  • [5] Ninja, or properly shinobi, is a term reserved for medieval Japan and the Japanese. It follows that no one today can become a ninja. Everyone, however, may study the period documents and in their free time revive the traditions of these soldiers, as various groups of historical fencing, period crafts and traditional Japanese martial skills do.

To serious students of ninjutsu I recommend studying the following historical documents, which were also the source for this article:
  • Yokan Denkai and Yokan Rigen — Study and traditional commentaries on the 13th chapter of The Art of War by Master Sun Tzu,
    by Chikamatsu Shigenori, 1736
  • Bansenshukai — "The Sea of Myriad Rivers Merging,"
    by Fujibayashi Yasutake, 1676
  • Shōninki — "The True Value of the Ninja,"
    by Natori Sanjurō Masazumi, 1681
  • Shinobi Hiden, better known as Ninpiden — "The Hidden Traditions of the Ninja,"
    by Hattori Hanzo and others, 1560

On the sources: The period manuals cited above are available today in the modern English translations of Antony Cummins and Yoshie Minami: Bansenshūkai as The Book of Ninja (2013), Shōninki as True Path of the Ninja (2011), Ninpiden / Shinobi Hiden as The Secret Traditions of the Shinobi (2012); the commentaries of Chikamatsu Shigenori appeared in the Book of Samurai series. Japanese terms and names are given in the standard (Hepburn) romanization.

History: al-Masʿūdī on the Slavs

The Ṣaqāliba [1] are descended from Mādhāy, son of Japheth, son of Noah [2]; all these peoples trace their descent and reckon their lineage back to him — or so, at least, most of those who have studied the question hold. The Ṣaqāliba — the Slavs — dwell in the north, from where they first spread westward.

They are divided into several distinct nations, who war among themselves and who have kings. Some are Christians of the Jacobite rite [3]; others are heathen, having no scripture and knowing nothing of divine law [4].

Among these various nations that make up this heathen stock, there is one that from ancient times has held sovereign power. Their king is called Mājik [5], and they themselves are known as the Walītābā [6]. In former times all the Slavs acknowledged the supremacy of these, for from among them was chosen the chief ruler, and all the other chieftains counted themselves his servants [7].

Among the other Slavic nations the order is roughly as follows. The nation of the Istrāna [8], whose king in our own day is called Basqlābij [9]; then the nation of the Dūlāba [10], whose king is called Wānjslāf [11]. Others bear the name Namjīn [12], whose king is called Gharānd [13]; among the Slavs these are the bravest and the finest horsemen. Then follow the Manābin [14], whose king bears the name Ratīmīr [15]; then the Sarbīn [16], a Slavic nation greatly feared, for reasons that would take too long to explain and whose deeds would require detailed description — these hold to no particular religion. Then follows the nation called Murāwa [17], and another known as the Kharwātīn [18], and another called the Sāsīn [19], another the Khashānīn [20], and the Barānijābīn [21]. The names of some of their kings that we have given are in fact dynastic titles and not personal names.

The Sarbīn — the Serbs we have mentioned — have the custom of burning themselves alive when their king or chieftain dies; in the fire they also sacrifice their horses. This nation has customs resembling those of the Indians. Earlier in this work, in describing the Caucasus and the Khazars, we noted that in the land of the Khazars there dwells, besides the Khazars themselves, a population of Slavs and Rus, who likewise offer themselves up in the fire. These Slavs and the peoples akin to them spread rather toward the east than toward the west.

The foremost king of the Slavs is al-Dīr [22], whose dominion embraces great cities, much cultivated land, many troops and countless armies. Muslim merchants journey to his capital with all manner of goods.

On the borders of this king of the Slavs comes the king al-Afrāgh [23], who possesses a gold mine, cities, broad and well-tilled fields, a numerous army and a large population. He is, however, at war with the Byzantines, the Franks, the Bazkard [24] and other surrounding nations. The strife among them is unceasing. The neighbour of this king is the king of the Huns. This nation is the fairest, the most numerous and the most warlike of all.

The Slavs consist of many different nations and are widely scattered across the world, but this work is not the place for their fuller description and classification. I began with the king whose sovereignty was acknowledged by all the other rulers from the earliest times — that is, Mājik, king of the Veleti, who are the original, pure-blooded Slavs, the most respected, and pre-eminent over all the other branches of this race. Later, the discord that settled among these nations destroyed their original order, and the various families formed separate groups, each choosing its own king, as we have said. To set down all these events would take very long, the more so as I have already described them, in structured and great detail, in my earlier works, the Historical Chronicle and the Intermediate History.


Notes:
  • [1] The Slavs. In the author's usage "Slav" denotes the primary stock or race; the particular peoples — Veleti, Serbs, Germans, Saxons, Rus, Vandals, Obodrites and the like — were all reckoned Slavs. [in the source: Ṣaqāliba]
  • [2] A line traced from the Flood described in Genesis, chapters 6–9. Noah had three sons: Shem, Ham and Japheth. Japheth had seven sons, one of whom was named Madai (in the source Mādhāy), from whom, according to Muslim tradition, the race of the Slavs descends.
  • [3] The Old Oriental Orthodox Christian church, widespread in India and Syria, which traces its origin to St Thomas, one of the disciples of Jesus, who went to preach from Palestine to India.
  • [4] This does not mean they had no spiritual knowledge. To a Muslim, a "heathen" or unbeliever is anyone who does not follow the teaching of Abraham.
  • [5] [in the source: Mājik] A word left untranslated by the translators; the author reads it as "magus" — a mage, i.e. a sorcerer or prophet.
  • [6] [in the source: Walītābā] The author identifies these, most likely, as the Veleti (also Liutici), a tribe of the Baltic Slavs.
  • [7] To be understood as subordinates, not as slaves or servants.
  • [8] [in the source: Istrāna] A word left unexplained by the translators; the author suggests they may be the present-day inhabitants of Istria (i.e. the Slovenes), or, in the 10th century, perhaps the Stodorani (also Hevelli).
  • [9] [in the source: Basqlābij] Perhaps "Václavič," likely a family name; the author proposes possibly a brother of Václav, i.e. Boleslav I "the Cruel."
  • [10] [in the source: Dūlāba] The tribe of the Dulebes.
  • [11] [in the source: Wānjslāf] The author proposes Václav (Wenceslaus) I.
  • [12] [in the source: Namjīn] The author proposes the Germans.
  • [13] [in the source: Gharānd] The author proposes Gero "the Great" I.
  • [14] [in the source: Manābin] A people left unidentified by the translators; the author suggests, most likely, the population of Lower Pannonia.
  • [15] [in the source: Ratīmīr] The author proposes Ratimir, "the Slavic duke on the Drava."
  • [16] [in the source: Sarbīn] The author proposes the Serbs.
  • [17] [in the source: Murāwa] The author proposes the Moravians.
  • [18] [in the source: Kharwātīn] The author proposes the Croats.
  • [19] [in the source: Sāsīn] The author proposes the Saxons.
  • [20] [in the source: Khashānīn] The author proposes, most likely, the Kashubians.
  • [21] [in the source: Barānijābīn] The translator speculates about "some" Serbian tribe; the author offers, as a further conjecture, a tribe that might have given its name, for example, to the Baranavichy plain in Belarus, including the town of Baranavichy.
  • [22] [in the source: Aldayr] A king unknown to historians. The author proposes that at that time one of the most powerful rulers of the Rus of the Rurikid dynasty reigned — the so-called Oleg the Prophet — whose realm was also called Garðaríki, "the kingdom of towns." (Other scholars rather connect the name al-Dīr with Dir.)
  • [23] [in the source: al-Afragh] The author proposes, through the reading al-a(f)-Pra(g)-ha, the king "of Prague," i.e. Václav (Wenceslaus) I.
  • [24] [in the source: Bazkard] Probably the Bāshghird — i.e. the European Huns, dwelling in the territory between Byzantium (south), the Franks (west), the Pechenegs (east) and the Slavs (north).

About the author of the original work:

Abū al-Ḥasan ʿAlī ibn al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī al-Masʿūdī [896 – 956] was an Arab historian and geographer, also called the Arab Herodotus, who was born in Baghdad. After ceaseless travels he settled at last in Egypt, around the year 941, where he wrote the first draft of his universal history, Murūj al-dhahab wa-maʿādin al-jawhar ("The Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems").

On the sources: The text comes from al-Masʿūdī's Murūj al-dhahab ("The Meadows of Gold"). The standard critical edition and translation is Barbier de Meynard & Pavet de Courteille, Les Prairies d'or (Paris, 1861–1877); the Slavic passage is treated within the corpus of Arabic sources for Slavic history (cf. T. Lewicki, Źródła arabskie do dziejów Słowiańszczyzny). Names in square brackets give the scholarly transliteration; the identifications are the author's proposed readings, and the body follows the international (DIN 31635 / IJMES) convention.

History: Ibn Khurradādhbih on the Radhanites and the Rūs

The routes of the Jewish merchants whom we call al-Rādhāniyya run from west to east and from east to west, by both land and sea. Their routes link the western Mediterranean with India and China. From the western Mediterranean they export Slavic eunuchs [1]; Romance, Frankish and Lombard slaves [2]; young Romance and Andalusian girls and boys; brocade; beaver pelts, marten and other furs; and aromatics such as storax [3] and medicinal substances such as mastic [4]. From the sea-bed near the land of the Franks comes also a substance called busadh, commonly known as coral. They trade in swords as well. From the Far East they import musk, aloes-wood, camphor, cinnamon and other eastern goods. These merchants speak Arabic, Persian, Greek, Latin, Frankish [5], Andalusian [6] and Slavic [7].

The routes of the Rus merchants, whom we call al-Rūs and who are of the race of the Slavs [8], lead from the farthest reaches of the land of the Slavs to the eastern Mediterranean, where they sell the pelts of beaver and black fox, and swords as well. The Byzantine ruler levies a tithe — a tax of one-tenth — upon their goods. They return by sea by way of Samkarsh [9], the Jewish town, and from there make their way onward into Slavic territory.

They travel also by another route, sailing down the river Tanais [10], the river of the Slavs, passing the town of Khamlīj [11], the capital of the Khazars, where the ruler levies a tithe upon them. From there they descend to the Caspian Sea, making for a place known to them. This sea is five hundred farsakhs [12] in length. Sometimes they carry their goods on the backs of camels from the town of Jurjān [13] to Baghdad, where Slavic-speaking eunuchs serve as their interpreters. They pass themselves off as Christians, and like them pay the jizya — a head-tax [14].


Notes:
  • [1] Castrated "guardians of the bedchamber," employed in the Arab world to guard women or an entire harem, but also serving as courtiers, singers, religious specialists, soldiers, and even royal guards.
  • [2] The Lombards: a West Germanic people originally from the lower Elbe, who in the 6th century CE conquered northern Italy and founded their kingdom there.
  • [3] Also styrax, a tree resin used to treat various ailments, but above all as incense in Greek Orthodox worship.
  • [4] Also mastix, a gum resin from a shrub, used medicinally and, for example, as a natural chewing gum to cleanse the mouth and teeth.
  • [5] Note: not the modern French language, but rather some form of the Old Germanic speech used by the merchants of the Frankish Empire.
  • [6] Note: not modern Spanish, but some form of the Old Romance speech used by merchants in the southern part of the Frankish Empire, in Andalusia and the northern Mediterranean.
  • [7] Note: not any modern national language, but an early (Old) Slavic form of speech used by merchants in the Slavic and Rus lands.
  • [8] Ṣaqāliba — the Slavs. In the medieval Arabic sources "Slav" denotes the broad ethnic stock; the individual peoples (Veleti, Serbs, Croats, Rus and others) were all reckoned among them.
  • [9] [in the source: Samkarsh] Phanagoria of the Byzantine chronicles, i.e. the present-day Russian town of Taman, on the eastern shore of the Kerch Strait.
  • [10] The present-day river Don. The Don, however, flows not into the Caspian but into the Black Sea; so either the author was mistaken and meant the Volga, or he omitted the portage from the Don to the Volga.
  • [11] [in the source: Khamlīj] A trading quarter in the capital of the Khazar Empire, the city of Itil, which — together with the empire itself — was destroyed around 969 by the Rus ruler Sviatoslav I Igorevich.
  • [12] [in the source: farsakh] Also parasang, an ancient Persian measure of distance.
  • [13] [in the source: Jurjān] The present-day town of Gorgan, about 30 km from the southern shore of the Caspian Sea.
  • [14] [in the source: jizya] The annual head-tax on the non-Muslim population, the so-called dhimmī; it was a payment for their legal protection in a Muslim land under Muslim law, guaranteeing the protection of their customs and rights, with certain restrictions.

About the author of the original work:

Abū'l-Qāsim ʿUbaydallāh ibn ʿAbdallāh ibn Khurradādhbih [c. 820 – 912] served for many years as director of the barīd, the Abbasid postal and intelligence service. A friend of the caliph al-Muʿtamid, who reigned from 870 to 892, he wrote works on music theory, literature and geography. His Kitāb al-masālik wa-l-mamālik ("The Book of Routes and Kingdoms") is among the earliest surviving works of descriptive geography in Arabic. Later Arab geographers expanded and improved upon it with observations from their own travels; from quotations in those later authors we know that what survives is only an abridged version of his great work.

On the sources: The passage is taken from Ibn Khurradādhbih's Kitāb al-masālik wa-l-mamālik ("The Book of Routes and Kingdoms"). The standard critical edition and French translation is M. J. de Goeje, Kitāb al-Masālik wa-l-Mamālik, Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum VI (Leiden, 1889). Names in square brackets give the scholarly transliteration; the body of the article follows the international (DIN 31635 / IJMES) convention.

History: al-Marwazī on the Rūs

The Rūs live on an island. The island extends three days' journey in every direction. It is covered with groves and forests and surrounded by a lake. They are many, and they look to the sword as their livelihood and their calling. When one of them dies and leaves behind sons and daughters, all his property passes to the daughters, while the sons receive only a sword, with the words: "Your father won his wealth by the sword — imitate him in this and follow him." Such was their upbringing, until the time they adopted Christianity in the year 300 [1].

When they adopted Christianity, the faith blunted their swords; the door of their livelihood was closed to them, they returned to hardship and poverty, and their means grew scarce. So they resolved to become Muslims, that raiding and holy war — jihād — might be lawful to them, and that they might return to some of their former ways. They therefore sent envoys to the ruler of Khwārazm [2] — four kinsmen of their independent king, whom they called Vladimir, just as the Turks call theirs khāqān and the Bulghārs theirs yiltawār [3]. The envoys reached Khwārazm with their message. The Khwārazm-Shāh [4] was pleased at their wish to become Muslims and sent them one who would instruct them in the religious laws of Islam. And so they were converted.

They are strong and mighty men who travel on foot into distant lands for their expeditions. They likewise sail in ships upon the Khazar Sea [5], seizing vessels and plundering cargo. They sail also to Constantinople [6] across the Pontic Sea [7], despite the chains across the strait. Once, sailing the Khazar Sea, they made themselves for a time masters of the city of Bardhaʿa [8]. Their bravery and courage are so well known that each one of them is worth several men of any other nation. Were they to have horses and become riders, they would be a great scourge upon mankind. [9]


Notes:
  • [1] The year 300 of the Islamic calendar, i.e. roughly 913 CE. This early date is today read as reflecting an earlier wave of Christianization among the Rūs, rather than the baptism of the Rus under Prince Vladimir I in 988.
  • [2] The kingdom of Khwārazm (Chorasmia) lay south of the Aral Sea, on the lower course of the Amu Darya (the Greek Oxus), between present-day Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.
  • [3] The author presents the name Vladimir not as a personal name but as a title — a designation of the ruler of the Rūs, "the one who rules." Modern scholars read this as al-Marwazī having mistaken for a title the personal name of the famous Prince Vladimir I.
  • [4] The ruler, or sovereign, of Khwārazm.
  • [5] The present-day Caspian Sea.
  • [6] Tsargrad, present-day Istanbul.
  • [7] The present-day Black Sea.
  • [8] [in the source: Bardhaʿa] The present-day town of Barda in Azerbaijan, on the Terter (Tartar) river.
  • [9] The Rus did use cavalry, but not on their naval expeditions.

About the author of the original text:

Sharaf al-Zamān Ṭāhir al-Marwazī, or simply al-Marwazī, was a physician and the author of an encyclopaedia, Ṭabāʾiʿ al-ḥayawān ("The Natures of Animals"), from which the anthropological passage on the Rūs above is drawn. He came from the city of Marw (also known as Alexandria Margiana), in the realm of Khurāsān in Persia, in the territory of present-day Turkmenistan. He served the Seljuk sultan Malik-Shāh, who reigned from 1072 to 1092 CE, and his successors, until his own death around 1130.

On the sources: The passage is taken from al-Marwazī's encyclopaedia Ṭabāʾiʿ al-ḥayawān ("The Natures of Animals"), from its section on China, the Turks and India. The standard edition and English translation is V. Minorsky, Sharaf al-Zamān Ṭāhir Marvazī on China, the Turks and India (Royal Asiatic Society, London, 1942). Names in square brackets, "[in the source: …]", give the scholarly transliteration; the body of the article follows the international (DIN 31635 / IJMES) convention.